The Role of the Leader in Evaluating Data to Improve Quality and Assignment

The Role of the Leader in Evaluating Data to Improve Quality and Safety Paper - Assignment Example Despite the increased attention within the healthcare industry to facilitate reimbursement to the best available intentions for managing patient falls, the rates continue to escalate, which puts the patients and their caregivers at risk. The facts as depicted in the core of this study indicate the alarming rates, which falls and other critical developments in the care facilities continue to influence the role of the nursing leaders. The facts as presented remain undeniably high compared to the rates of the manageable cases within this case as the report indicates. The telemetry unit in this case is observing an increasing rate of falls of patients. For instance, compared to the average age, which is at 72.4 years, this rate of falls is quite difficult to note the cause. Secondly, the majority of the cases of the patient falls as depicted in the case apply to the patients with diuretics. The patients depict aspects of confusion and disorientation, constituting 12% of the patients with such secondary diagnostics. This establishment is vital to the establishment of workable plan. Additionally, it is also observable that most of the cases of the patient falls occur during the early morning hours. The patient reports indicate that a significant majority of the patients experiencing falls occurs from 3:00 AM to 11:00 AM. Moreover, it is also notable that the minimum number of patient falls occurs in the afternoon hours. These observations indicate the need to evaluate the causative factors contributing to this trend in within the unit. From observing the developments in the fall rates, it is also notable that the average falls is on the rise for each of the days within the hours described. The nurses that recall the incidents when the patient fell indicate that the patient fall rates increase with increase in age. This observation means that the plan to address the cases of patient falls need to consider the vulnerability and co-morbidities

Strategic Management Decisions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Strategic Management Decisions - Assignment Example The rapid sociological changes also contribute to the changing business environments, especially with respect to the entertainment market. Governmental policies and laws also affect where and how firms choose to compete. All these factors affect not only the general competitive environment in which the firm is operating but also the strategic decisions made by companies to combat the competition within the industry. In general the business strategies are based on the firm's ability to capture and convert the external and internal forces into desired outcomes. Thus "an integrated understanding of the external and internal environments in which the firm is operating is essential for the firm to understand the present and predict the future."(S.A. Zahra & Geroge 2002) A firm's external environment can be broadly divided into general, industry and competitor environments. "The general environment is composed of dimensions in the broader society that influence an industry and the firms within it" (L.Fahey 1999). These dimensions can be grouped under the following environmental segments: For formulating strategies to steer the firm through the challenges being posed by these environmental forces, a careful evaluation of the firm's strengths in these areas need to be analysed and for that purpose the 'PESTLE' analysis comes handy. An in-depth analysis of the firm's competitive ability is one ... PESTLE analysis like the PEST analysis involves identifying the political, economical, socio-cultural, technological, legal and environmental influences on an organization. PESTLE analysis is simple, quick and uses the basis key perspectives of an organization. The advantage of this tool can be found in encouraging the management to adopt proactive and structured thinking in its decision making process. 1.3 PESTLE Analysis with respect to Live Entertainment Market in UK: Mintel reports that in spite of the stiff competition from other form of entertainments, live entertainment still holds the centre-spot with 48 percent of the UK adults are in favour of live entertainment and 54 percent of them have attended a live music, a play, a stand-up comedy or karaoke in the past six moths. Even among these the live music is proved to be the most popular type of event. Political: Any changes in the governments would affect the policies relating to rates and taxes on the entertainment business may affect the general growth of the business as being a leisure sector usually subjected to additional tax burden. There may be changes in monetary policies due to political reasons that may result in exchange fluctuations to have an impact on the profitability of Live Nation as Live Nation is basically a non-UK origin entity, Economical: The predictions for the UK economy till the year 2010 are that there will be a continuous growth of 2-3 percent annually in the consumer expenditure despite a slowing down of the economy and the personal disposable income is also expected to increase by 3-4 percent. These two variables have a definite positive impact on the consumers' willingness to spend on leisure activities including live music. The other economic factor that may

U. S. Leadership Essay Example for Free

U. S. Leadership Essay Minorities are concentrated in urban areas or CBD’s by a variety of forces. After World War II, many people (mostly African Americans) migrated from the South to the North. The housing demand was much greater than the housing supply. The FHA and other organizations, supported by the U. S. government, began offering low interest loans to white people in the newly developing suburbs. â€Å"While many organizations were providing low-cost financing for houses in the suburbs, such as the Home Owners Loan Corporation and the Federal Housing Administration and the Veteran’s Mortgage Guarantee Program, the FHA refused to guarantee suburban loans to poor people, nonwhites, Jews and other ‘inharmonious’ racial and ethnic groups because the value of homes in the neighborhood, according to the FHA, would drop in value (Chudacoff 270). Because of these low interest loans to aid whites in moving to the suburbs and the restrictive covenants that kept blacks and other minorities out of suburban areas, minorities were not able to move out of CBD’s. So whites fled to the suburbs (a phenomenon called white flight), but minorities were forced to stay. Many jobs went to the suburbs as well, which means that urban jobs became decentralized as well. Black neighborhoods were then further divided by freeways and other projects of urban renewal. The freeways became barriers between whites and other races, as Graham Greene called this â€Å"the racing and placing of America† (Greene 39). Jalbert also sums this up with â€Å"Suburbanization was a decidedly white experience enforced by blatant racism, unequal access to economic opportunity, and restrictive housing covenants† (Jalbert). This segregation affects schools in a variety of ways. Since schools are funded chiefly by state property taxes (except for the 8. 5% from the federal government), suburban schools have always fared better. Economic differences exist between CBD and suburban areas obviously. Because of white flight, enhanced by the FHA’s low interest loans for whites to buy in the suburbs, and restrictive covenants that left minorities out of the suburbs, economic inequity remains. Houses in the suburbs are assessed generously while houses in the CBD are redlined, or assessed for less money because the neighborhoods are mixed). Education is unequal. This is a large and seemingly insurmountable problem in American education. Harris (2002) sums up the entire problem quite eloquently in the following quote. It is perfectly obvious that the highest at-risk students have the poorest, most run-down physical environments, the greatest instability of teachers coming and going, the fewest fully qualified teachers, a shortage of textbooks and instructional materials, far less availability of technology in the classroom, overcrowded classrooms, poor working conditions for the teachers, and fewer resources to teach students to pass the tests that they have little chance of being properly prepared to take. To compare these schools with those serving the most affluent majority of students is akin to comparing a backward, emerging nation with a highly industrialized nation. It is no contest† (Harris. 37). The inequities in education are directly caused by the breakdown of the CBD’s. The U. S. government put money behind the loans the FHA program and others gave to whites. The government even financed the freeway system with 50/50’s so that suburban people could have roads for a faster commute. Minorities were relegated to the CBD’s. Even in recent years, projects of urban renewal have further harmed CBD’s, like Dodger Stadium in an area called Chavez Ravine in Los Angeles. Schools in this country are more segregated than they were before Brown vs. the Board of Education, and schools in CBD’s are mostly minorities. To further illustrate the reality of these inequities in education, a quote by Jonathan Kozol’s recently published article for The Nation is needed. â€Å"The contrasts between what is spent today to educate child in the poorest New York City neighborhoods, where teacher salaries are often even lower. than the city averages, and spending levels in the wealthiest suburban areas are daunting challenges to any hope New Yorkers might retain that even semblances of fairness still prevail. Teachers in the schools of District 7 in Mott Haven, for example, where some 99. 8 percent of children are black or Latino, now receive a median salary that is approximately half the median salary of teachers in the affluent communities of Great Neck and Manhasset. (The actual numbers, which are annually compiled by the state, are $42,000 for a teacher in Mott Haven, versus $82,000 for the teachers in these two Long Island suburbs.) Including all the other costs of operation of a public school, a third-grade class of twenty-five children in the schools of Great Neck now receives at least $200,000 more per year than does a class the same size in Mott Haven, while children in a comparable classroom in Manhasset now receive a quarter-million dollars more. † (Kozol 1) Kozol sums it up absolutely. These are the cold hard facts of urban economics in the schools of New York City. Schools in CBD’s are inequitable; they are segregated. They contain the students who need the most help with the teachers who are least prepared to help them. They need more money for remediation programs, but do not have the property taxes nor the influential parents to get the money. They never had an equal chance from the start, and if education is to play the role of the great equalizer, these problems need to be fixed. Works Cited Chudacoff, Howard. â€Å"The Politics of Growth in the Era of Suburbanization, 1945-1974, in Chudacoff and Smith, The Evolution of American Urban Society, pp. 263-296. Greene, Ronald Walter, Malthusian Worlds: U. S. Leadership and the Governing of the Population Crisis, 1939. Harris, Louis (2002). If You Want to Know About the Schools, Ask the Teachers: A Survey of the Status of Public Education in New York. Prepared for Recruiting Teachers, Inc. (July 2002). p. 37. Jalbert, Matthew, â€Å"Burbs, Blockbusting, and Blacks: Morphosis of the Postwar American City, â€Å"Radical Urban Theory, Accessed March 29, 2007, at www. radicalurbantheory. com/mjalbert/burbs/index8. html Kozol, Jonathan. (2002) Malign Neglect. Children in New York public schools are being shortchanged-again. The Nation. June 10, 2002. Retrieved March 26, 2007, from http://www. thirdworldtraveler. com/Third_World_US/Malign_Neglect_Kozol. html

Effects of Back Massage on Chemotherapy-related Fatigue

Effects of Back Massage on Chemotherapy-related Fatigue Shahida Abbasi This paper is aimed to critique on a quantitative research article. â€Å"Effects of back massage on chemotherapy-related fatigue and anxiety: Supportive care and therapeutic touch in cancer nursing† Written by Karagozoglu and Kahve (2013) as part of my assignment. The Problem The problem is significant to nursing as noted by Karagozoglu and Kahve (2013) that nurses are directly involved to provide care and deal with patients receiving chemotherapy and their experienced side effects. It is also mentioned that problem is significance to nursing, as nursing interventions intend to improve quality of life by reducing the stress level of the patient with cancer. Moreover, the purpose of conducting quasi experimental and cross sectional study research was to determine the effectiveness of back massage, a nursing intervention, on fatigue process which develops due to chemo therapy. Furthermore, on the anxiety level which develops, and has been explained explicitly. In my point of view this study can accomplish its purpose as Burns and Grove (2011) mentioned that effects of independent variables on dependent variable can be determined through quasi experimental studies. In addition, quasi experimental; a quantitative approach study design is best fit to determine the effectiveness of back message. In the article research variables back massage independent variable and fatigue as dependent variable has been explained with literature support, whereas I feel the dependent variable anxiety need more elaboration. The investigators promptly introduced the problem statement at the end of the introduction. In my point of view the answer to the problem provide insight into current issues in nursing practice because there was no study found which determine the effects of back massage in decreasing fatigue and anxiety of chemotherapy patients. In addition, the investigators has stated the assumptions very clearly that â€Å"back massage providing during chemotherapy reduces fatigue and anxiety† Moreover, limitations are not listed explicitly but reader can infer easily as evident by this statement, small sample size was used therefore, the findings of the study could not be generalized. The limitations of quasi study design are as mentioned in Polit and Beck (2012) noted that in interventional study participants show reluctance to be selected through randomization. Thus these assumptions and limitations are realistic. Review of the Literature The literature reviewed by the researchers is comprehensive, critical, and logical. Moreover, the literature was published during the period 1988- 2013 and most of them were not recent but relevant to the problem. The relationship to the research purpose is evident by the literature review. In addition to that the researchers included 21 recent research studies and of these three studies published in 2013 were also used. The investigators paraphrased the reviewed adequately did not use any quotation. The researchers made a case logically for conducting a new study based on the review Protection of Human Rights This study was designed to minimize risk and maximize benefits to participants. Moreover, the researchers indicated very explicitly that participants gave voluntary, verbal and written informed consent and no evidence of coercion was found. However, it is not evident in study that participants were invited to consent during periods of high stress. There is no evidence in the study that individuals can be identified and linked to study. The researchers very clearly mentioned that approval to conduct the study has been taken from an independent ethics committee of Cumhuriyet University Faculty of Medicine. Theoretical / Conceptual Framework The researchers did not describe any theory or framework to guide their study. Coughlan, Cronin and Ryan (2007) noted that theoretical frameworks tend to be better developed in experimental and quasi-experimental studies. Burn and Grove (2011) noted that a well-developed quantitative study is based on clearly stated framework and quality of frame work needs to be evaluated for practicality. However, in this study the absence of theory or frame work did not detract the researchers from the significance of the research. Hypothesis The investigators formally stated hypotheses. It is appropriate to have the hypothesis in quantitative study as the investigators were interested to test the effectiveness of back massage. Burns and Grove (2011, p.167) stated that this type of researches are required to have hypothesis in order to predict outcome. Moreover, hypotheses are naturally derived from the research problem and transform the problem into predictable results. In this study hypotheses contain two dependent and independent variables. Furthermore, the investigators stated hypotheses clearly and objectively and the prediction is evident. It is very obvious that these predictions are supported by the literature. Sampling The target population carefully described by the researchers i-e patients who at least underwent for chemotherapy. The target population was appropriate according to the study problem and desirability. However, resource limitations are not mentioned in the study. The investigators described sample selection procedures by giving strict eligibility criteria. However, it would be better if they had clearly mentioned the type of sampling procedure used. Moreover, the sampling method fits with the research design and level of inquiry of study. However, the authors did not describe potential sample biases. According to Polit and Beck (2012) under representation of the sample pertaining to research question should be acknowledge by the researchers. The sample is sufficiently large as Polit and Beck (2012, p.285) propose that small sample size will be adequate if researcher is certain about the strong relationship of the independent and dependent variables and it is described under the subhe ading of methods p.212.This study can be generalized on the target population and patients receive chemotherapy. The investigators have described the eligibility criteria to enroll participants on ( p.212) to ensure a representative sample. However, sampling error can be minimized by increasing the sample size. Research Design The investigators used quasi experimental and cross sectional design to determine the effects of the interventions. The design used for the level of inquiry of research question and purpose of research was appropriate as Burn and Grove (2011, P.151) mentioned that this study design is to determine the effects of back massage on independent variables. The researcher did not discussed potential effects of confounding variables and possible measures to control such effects (validity). Polit and Beck (2012) proposes selection of homogeneous sample to control confounder, however, statistical analysis can also be used for the same purpose. The researchers gave enough information based on which study can be replicated. Data Collection The instruments Personal Information Form, The State Anxiety part of Spielberger State- Trait Anxiety Inventry (STAI) Brief Fatigue Inventory (BFI) were used for data collection. Personal Information consists of nine questions for that detail is given under the subheading of Personal Information on p. 212. Moreover, State- Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) instruments developed by Spielberger et.al in 1964 has been used by Oner and Le Compte. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was given that shows validity and reliability. In addition, Brief Fatigue Inventory (BFI) developed by Mendoza et.al. (1999) which consists of 10 questions was used to assess fatigue, and the same scale was used by Cinar, Sezerli,Sarsmaz and Ments. The value of Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of the scale verifies its validity and reliability. However, rationale for the selection of instruments was not given. Instruments used in this study were congruent with research questions. Are results of these tests sufficient to indicate their use? The instruments are suitable for use with the study sample. Quantitative Analysis Determining the effectiveness of back massage is the third level of inquiry of study question, and for that quasi experimental and cross sectional study design is best fit. The investigators calculated mean and standard deviation for age. Chi-square test has been used for qualitative ordinal variables. A non-parametric Friedman test that is substitute of ANOVA has been used to analyze mean BFI score for intra group variability. Moreover, a Wilcoxon non-parametric test alternative to paired t-test was used to examine mean STAI scores of patients before, after and right after chemotherapy. Furthermore, Mann-Whitney U test was used for mean STAI and BFI score of patients before and right after chemotherapy. Despite the fact that data were normally distributed, non- parametric test have been used. The link between the analysis and findings are logical, clear, and are evident by statistical rejection of null hypothesis by P-value. The researchers did not go beyond the data during interpretation of the findings, and they presented statistical result both in the narration and in tabulated form. The investigators used inferential statistic that is enough eviden ce to establish the correctness of the statistical result as Coughlan Cronin, P., Ryan (2007) noted that statistical significance assist the investigators to rule out threat to validity. The investigator presented findings in a table which is clear, simple, and accurate. Conclusions and Recommendations Data analysis clearly explained in reference to research questions and hypotheses. Since the study sample was small, the researchers made appropriate decision; based on significant findings and did not claim for generalizations beyond the study sample or population. However, the results are applicable on our patients who are planning for chemotherapy. If we will implement this intervention to our context, then it will lead to increase comfort, decrease fatigue, and anxiety. Furthermore, there are no risks of implementing study findings mentioned explicitly or inferred. The authors also recommended that back massage during chemotherapy is effective intervention to be practiced to control the side effects especially fatigue and anxiety and this recommendation is well supported by the others studies. However, the investigators did not give recommendations for future research studies. To determine the efficacy of back massage, a nursing intervention is a unique study which is significance for nursing practice. In this study the investigators used quasi experimental and cross sectional study design. Moreover, the study purpose of the study is explicitly stated. The investigators tested hypothesis with instrument which are reliable and valid and they described the instrument very comprehensively. Moreover, sample selection was carried out on strict eligibility criteria. Study findings have been explained in narration and in table. Finally, investigators gave conclusion based on findings that back massage is effective nursing intervention to decrease the fatigue and anxiety of the patients who receive chemotherapy. The investigators also mentioned that study cannot be generalized other than target population. References Burns, N., Grove, S. K. (2012). Understanding Nursing Research: Building an Evidence-Based Practice. Elsevier Health Sciences. Polit, D. F., Beck, C. T. (2012). Nursing Research: Generating and Assessing Evidence for Nursing Practice. Lippincott Williams Wilkins. Coughlan, M., Cronin, P., Ryan, F. (2007). Step-by-step guide to critiquing research. Part 1: quantitative research.British Journal of Nursing,16(11), 658-663.

Radio Waves :: essays research papers

Before beginning our research on radio waves, to us, radio waves were just waves going through the atmosphere, carrying sound from one place to another. Those were our ignorant days! We did not realize the complicated terms and theories involved. In the following report you will see how we advanced in our knowledge of radio waves, and we hope it will do the same for you. Radio waves are a combination of two kinds of electric vibrations. Audio frequency waves, which represent voice and other sounds and radio frequency waves, which carry audio waves after being combined with them. Two examples of broadcast waves are AM waves and FM waves. AM which stands for amplitude modulation, is a broadcasting method in which the carrier waves (carry the sounds of a program) are changed to match changes in the audio frequency waves. These are electric waves that represent the sounds of a radio broadcast. FM stands for frequency modulation and these waves, that go skyward, are not reflected. Instead, they pass through the atmosphere and go into space. AM signals, however, reflect off the atmosphere and travel back down to earth, causing broadcasts to be received at a much greater distance than FM signals. Since FM travels all the way to space and it does not bounce off the ground it does not create as much static as AM does. Radio waves, which travel at the speed of light, cannot be seen, heard, or felt in any way. When you listen to the radio, contrary to what some think, you are hearing the receivers pick up the waves and turn them into sound. Three more types of radio waves are; ground waves, ionospheric waves and tropospheric waves. Ground waves travel from the antenna along the surface of the earth. Ionospheric waves, otherwise known as sky waves, are made up of radio waves that come from a transmitting antenna and go into the sky. The ionosphere is the region of the rare field and ionized atmosphere around the earth, from 50 to 200 miles. Last but not least are the tropospheric waves. These waves are parts of the original wave which is reflected into the troposphere, an area of clouds and storms from 3 to 7 miles high. Radios change sound into electrical patterns with transmitters. In a radio transmitter, the circuit that generates the high frequency AC current that produces radio waves from an antenna, is called an oscillator. Electrical patterns are then changed into broadcast waves of electromagnetic energy. The Kenelly-Heairside layer, found in a transmission of a radio is now well known. This keeps the energy spent by a shortwave transmitter from escaping into space. This is why we are able

A Lifetime of Perceived Reality :: Literary Analysis, Fitzgerald

Everyone has moments when you put up veils to either hide, or feel comfort in a situation. We all even sometimes focus on past events to aid our put-on-faces. It sounds natural to periodically take part in this, but imagine if you became so consumed with you illusioned face you took part in this for years on end. After a period of time you would no longer be able to tell your created image from your true image- So you’d turn to what you do know that can be altered just as your image, you would turn to past memories. You’d convince yourself that whatever you had in the past could easily be obtained in the present, which is not true (sp. 2). This is the situation of Jay Gatsby and Daisy Buchanan. Each of these characters from the story The Great Gatsby (F.Scott Fitzgerald) constantly put up facades, and when distinction between actuality and desire became meshed they became abnormal, and a sure price was to be paid for unwittingly turning to the past. Theses two char acters told a fact that’s to last a lifetime- putting up veils for too long, while living in a parallel universe and prior times will lead to your permanent extinction, eternally altered, or utterly lost when actuality apprehends you.(sp.3) Jay Gatsby, the torn man who envisioned himself into â€Å"James Gatz†, who at seventeen invented and transformed himself into Jay Gatsby† (Telgen 67). Gatsby was a man who hid under facades, lived for them sometimes blindly.(Sp.4) This Caused him to unconsciously process â€Å"double vision† -(Telgen65) Meaning he saw in two sets of eyes his uncontrolled natural ones, and his robotic cloaked ones.(sp.5) The Cloaked set (which he could control at this point) distracted him from the present state of Daisy. The realization that the girl he â€Å"loved† was not the golden image he perfected numerous times with memories of his constructed past. He failed to comprehend that he was only in love with the illusion he had created years ago. He allowed these memories to drive him and push him toward things he didn’t understand he could never have. Daisy’s faint crystal memories obsessively drove him â€Å"toward the green light† (Fitzge rald 13), in which nourished and protected the fragile, attained Daisy. Jay â€Å"Gatsby brought [a] House so that Daisy would be just across the bay† (Fitzgerald 147) .

Lake: Ocean and Lakes

A lake is a body of relatively still water of considerable size, localized in a basin, that is surrounded by land apart from a river, stream, or other form of moving water that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes are inland and not part of the ocean and therefore are distinct from lagoons, and are larger and deeper thanponds. [1][2] Lakes can be contrasted with rivers or streams, which are usually flowing. However most lakes are fed and drained by rivers and streams. Natural lakes are generally found in mountainous areas, rift zones, and areas with ongoing glaciation.Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers. In some parts of the world there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last Ice Age. All lakes are temporary over geologic time scales, as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them. Many lakes are artificial and are constructed for industrial or agricultural use, fo r hydro-electric power generation or domestic water supply, or for aesthetic or recreational purposes. Lake, large, inland body of fresh or salty standing water.Lakes are distinguished from bodies of water such as bays and gulfs, and some seas, that have an interchange with the ocean and are subject to tides. Lake basins are formed by many geologic processes, such as buckling of stratified rock into large folds, displacement of large masses of rock by faults (see Fault), and blocking of valleys by landslides. Lakes also form by glaciation. Glaciers carve out large basins by scooping up bedrock and redistributing loose material. Many of the lakes of North America formed this way, including the Great Lakes and New York's Finger Lakes.The source of lake water is atmospheric precipitation that reaches the lake directly and by means of springs, brooks, and rivers. Lakes form and disappear over the course of varying lengths of geologic time (see Chronology). They may evaporate, as the cli mate becomes more arid, or they may fill up with sediment, leaving a bog or swamp in their place. In arid regions where precipitation is slight and evaporation great, lake levels rise and fall with the seasons and sometimes dry up for long periods. In lakes where evaporation prevents the water from overflowing the basin rims, substances dissolved in the water become concentrated.The dissolved matter, brought by tributary streams, varies in composition with the nature of the rocks in the local drainage system. The primary mineral constituent of salt lakes is common salt; bitter lakes contain sulfates; alkali lakes contain carbonates; borax lakes contain borates; and some lakes contain combinations of these substances. Lakes form at all altitudes and are distributed throughout the world. Almost one-half of the world's lakes are in Canada. Lakes are abundant in high latitudes, particularly in mountain regions subjected to glacial action.Many lakes are important commercially as sources of minerals and fish, as shipping arteries, and as vacation resorts. The largest lakes in the world include the Caspian Sea, Lake Superior, and Lake Victoria. The Dead Sea is the world's lowest lake, 408 m (1,340 ft) below sea level. The Caspian, the world's largest lake, covers an area of 370,998 sq km (143,243 sq mi). Lake Baikal is the deepest freshwater lake in the world, with a maximum OCEAN An ocean (from Ancient Greek (Okeanos); the World Ocean of classical antiquity[1]) is a body of saline water that composes much of a planet'shydrosphere.On Earth, an ocean is one or all of the major divisions of the planet's World Ocean – which are, in descending order of area, the Pacific,Atlantic, Indian, Southern (Antarctic), and Arctic Oceans. [3][4] The word sea is often used interchangeably with â€Å"ocean† in American English but, strictly speaking, a sea is a body of saline water (generally a division of the World Ocean) that land partly or fully encloses. [5] Earth is the only planet that is known to have an ocean (or any large amounts of open liquid water).Saline water covers approximately 72% of the planet's surface (~3.  6Ãâ€"108 km2) and is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas, with the ocean covering approximately 71% of the Earth's surface. [6]The ocean contains 97% of the Earth's water, and oceanographers have stated that only 5% of the World Ocean has been explored. [6] The total volume is approximately 1. 3 billion cubic kilometres (310 million cu mi)[7] with an average depth of 3,682 metres (12,080 ft). [8] The ocean principally comprises Earth's hydrosphere and therefore is integral toall known life, forms part of the carbon cycle, and influences climate and weatherpatterns.It is the habitat of 230,000 known species, although much of the ocean's depths remain unexplored, and over two million marine species are estimated to exist. [9] The origin of Earth's oceans remains unknown; oceans are believed t o have formed in the Hadean period and may have been the impetus for theemergence of life. Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements andcompounds. The only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, although there is evidence for the existence of oceans elsewhere in the Solar System.Early in their geologic histories, Mars andVenus are theorized to have had large water oceans. The Mars ocean hypothesissuggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water, and a runaway greenhouse effect may have boiled away the global ocean of Venus. Compounds such as salts and ammonia dissolved in water lower its freezing point, so that water might exist in large quantities in extraterrestrial environments as brine or convecting ice.Unconfirmed oceans are speculated beneath the surface of many dwarf planets and natural satellites; notably, the ocean of Europa is believed to have over twice the water volum e of Earth. The Solar System's gas giant planets are also believed to possess liquid atmosphericlayers of yet to be confirmed compositions. Oceans may also exist on exoplanetsand exomoons, including surface oceans of liquid water within a circumstellar habitable zone. Ocean planets are a hypothetical type of planet with a surface completely covered with liquid.Ocean and Oceanography, great body of salt water comprising all the oceans and seas that cover nearly three-fourths of the surface of the earth, and the scientific study of the physical, chemical, and biological aspects of the so-called world ocean. The major goals of oceanography are to understand the geologic and geochemical processes involved in the evolution and alteration of the ocean and its basin, to evaluate the interaction of the ocean and the atmosphere so that greater knowledge of climatic variations can be attained, and to describe how the biological productivity in the sea is controlled.The world ocean covers 71 p ercent of the earth’s surface, or about 361 million sq km (140 million sq mi). Its average depth is 5,000 m (16,000 ft), and its total volume is about 1,347,000,000 cu km (322,300,000 cu mi). The three major subdivisions of the world ocean are the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and the Indian Ocean, which are conventionally bounded by the continental masses (see Continent). The two minor subdivisions of the world ocean are the Southern Ocean, bounded by the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to the north and Antarctica to the south, and the Arctic Ocean, almost landlocked except between Greenland and Europe.From the shorelines of the continents a submerged part of the continental mass, called the continental shelf, extends sea ward an average distance of 75 km (43 mi); it varies in width from nearly zero to 1,500 km (930 mi). The shelf gives way abruptly at a depth of about 200 m (660 ft) to a steeper zone known as the continental slope, which descends about 3,500 m (12,000 ft ). The continental rise, a gradually sloping zone of sediment that is considered part of the ocean bottom, extends about 600 km (370 mi) from the base of the continental slope to the flat abyssal plains of the deep-ocean floor.In the central parts of the oceans are the midocean ridges, which are extensive mountain chains with inner troughs that are heavily intersected by cracks, called fracture zones. The ridges are sections of a continuous system that winds for 60,000 km (40,000 mi) through all the oceans. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge extends from the Norwegian Sea through the volcanic islands of Iceland and the Azores to the South Atlantic, where it is equidistant from the African and South American coasts.The ridge continues into the Indian Ocean, with a branch that reaches into the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, then passes between Australia and Antarctica and into the eastern South Pacific. The East Pacific Rise extends north to the Gulf of California; Easter Island and the Galapagos are volcanic islands that are part of this submarine mountain chain. The ridge system seems to merge into the continents in several areas, such as the Red Sea and the Gulf of California, and such areas are regions of great geologic activity, characterized by volcanoes, or earthquakes and faults (see Earthquake; Fault; Volcano).